Andrea Whyland
9-14-00

As early as the 12^th century, literature written in French vernacular was termed "romance". The term "romance" eventually was identified as a specific type of narrative, not just any narrative written in French vernacular. Prominent, courtly women made up most of the audience for these narratives. Because women played an important part in the romance narratives, the queen and other ladies of the court tended to be drawn to the romances. In the development of romance two women influenced it most: Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of France and then England, and her daughter Marie, Countess of Champagne. The queen "brought to the English court her interest in poetry, music and the arts, all of which were cultivated at the court of Aquitaine where she grew up" (Schwartz 1). By closely examining the similar characteristics that the romance narratives exhibited, it is easily seen why the noble women of the court and many others were drawn to the fantastical stories.

The first characteristic found in romance is that of complex ideals. A knight was to be not only a fighter but also a lover. On the other hand, a balance between being a fighter and a lover had to be made. A knight was to go out and perform great deeds on quests, but he was never to forget of the duties or honors of which he owed his lady. A lack of balance between being a warrior and a courtier would mean that the knight wasn't practicing being part of the courtly culture, which was a shame for him. A courtly knight had proper manners and always displayed generosity. He was a protector of the weak and the innocent. In addition, he followed protocols or the rules of the game. Finally, he interacted well with the women. He needed to be a smooth talker and a good conversationalist with the women in order to interest them. To be a lover and a fighter, the knight had to practice at both courtly manners and combat. The knights were "expected to serve God, King, justice and morality, their ladies, and the cause of all who are in need" (Lacy, Ashe, Mancoff 69). The knight often faced conflict "between loyalty to his lady and to his feudal lord, or between his lady and his devotion to chivalry" (Strayer 670).

A second characteristic of the romance genre involves marvels and adventure. In setting out on a quest, the knight encounters some sort of marvel. In some romance narratives it may be a splendid castle engulfed in beautiful flowers, but in other romances the marvel may take the form of a giant, beast-like man. The element of marvels makes romance narratives seem like a fantasy world. A romance narrative "means nothing, if it does not convey some notion of mystery and fantasy" (Ker 4). In the quest of the knight, he always encounters adventure. The typical romance adventure happens around the questing knight. Many knights go on quests to prove themselves in a world of adventure. The world of adventure is "created and designed to give the knight opportunity to prove himself" (Auerbach 136).

Chance or fortune also proves to be an important characteristic in romance narratives. It is by pure luck or by chance that a knight merely stumbles upon his lost love after 20 years of anguish for her. Also, it is by chance that a knight finds a wonderful castle with generous people after just encountering the most tragic weather in the land. Chance or fortune seems to allow the character relief in some instances, and further pain in others.

Not only does the knight encounter marvels, adventure, and good fortune, but he also is faced with surprises. The element of surprise adds to the idea of a mysterious, suspenseful world. A knight may take part in a brutal battle on his quest with another knight, only to be surprised by the fact that it was his brother or cousin he faced in the challenge. The knight is not the only person surprised in romance narratives; on the other hand, the reader often is surprised due to the lack of foreshadowing in the narrative. The element of surprise keeps the reader in suspense and waiting for the next event to occur.

Finally, romance narratives take the form of a fairy tale. Lovers usually "fall in love at first sight" and their love "is described as an illness and suffering" (Strayer 670). The landscape is that of enchantment and is often seen as practically springing up before our very eyes. The "geographical relation to the known world, their sociological and economic foundations, remain unexplained" (Auerbach 130). The elements of romance are "of mystery, of something sprung from the soil, concealing its roots, and inaccessible to rational explanation" (Auerbach 131). The exact geographical location usually isn't recognized or known; however, the court of King Arthur usually remained the "ideological and geographical center of the characters' world" (Lacy, Ashe, Mancoff 69). Romance narratives were not meant to be a replica of real life. Members of the audience who heard these stories likewise knew that these narratives were fictions, not models for the way real society was to behave in life (Schwartz 2).

The romance genre differs from the earlier genre of epic in many distinct ways. By examining these differences, we can learn what elements are not part of the romance genre. While the romance genre is a genre of opportunity and results in the change of the hero, epic is the genre of fate and involves a static, or unchanged, character. The epic genre also exhibits a tragic ending for the main character: death. Romance, on the other hand, has a more optimistic approach towards the end. Both epic and romance heroes fight in battle; however, it is the romance hero that must balance his combat skills with his skills in winning over the ladies with sweet talk. Epic narratives generally focus on the exploits and fighting of male heroes and an important aspect the hero must have is pride and honor. On the contrary, romance narratives generally focus on both the men and women and an important aspect the hero must have is the balance of being a warrior in battle and a courtly gentleman. The epic element of fate is never seen in the romance genre. The romance characters don't have a negative force that is planning their eventual death. In the epic genre, on the contrary, the hero has a predestined future. His fate is already planned for him and the negative force behind his fate usually drives him to his death. Also, in the romance genre we never see any signs of foreshadowing. We, as the reader, are usually just as in the dark and astonished at the surprises the characters encounter because we are not given any clue as to what is about to happen. Foreshadowing and prophecy are not a pattern we usually find in the romance genre.

Overall, the romance genre created a fantasy world for the members of the nobility to enjoy. The elements of mystical places, strange creatures, and wild adventure all create a world very different from the life led in the 12^th century. The strangeness of the romance narratives helped create a world that people wanted to be a part of. Society was changing, and the romance genre almost became a popular fashion among the noble class.

Auerbach, Erich. "The Knight Sets Forth". Mimesis.

Ker, W.P. "The Heroic Age". Epic and Romance.

Lacy, Norris J, Geoffrey Ashe and Debra N. Mancoff, eds. The Arthurian Handbook. 2^nd ed. New York: Garland Publishing, 1997.

Schwartz, Debora B. "Background to Romance: 'Courtly Love'". http;//cla.calpoly.edu

Strayer, Joseph Reese, ed. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. 13 vols. New York: Scribner, 1982-89.