Miranda Bailey
November 21, 2000

ANCIENT CELTIC RELIGION AND GODDESS WORSHIP

Using archaeology, contemporary commentaries from the Classical world, and vernacular sources, scholars have recreated the societies and religious practices of ancient civilizations (Green 8). According to Marija Gimbutas, a well-known expert on ancient Goddess civilizations, the beginnings of goddess worship can be traced back to the end of the Ice Age, approximately 35,000 years ago (Gimbutas 222). Focusing primarily on art and symbols on rock, bone, and horn from this period, Gimbutas concludes that goddess worship originated in the society's reverence for women as the source of life. Interestingly, none of the art from the Paleolithic or Neolithic periods represents men as important figures in the society. Instead, the importance of women and the Goddess is evident in a group of approximately 3,000 sculptures dating back to 27,000-25,000 BCE, which represent the various aspects of the Goddess.

These roles include the giving and protection of life, death, and regeneration, and suggest the existence of a Triple Goddess (Gimbutas 222). Gimbutas focuses on the Life-Giving Goddess, the Death Goddess, and the Goddess of Regeneration, but others describe the aspects of the Goddess differently. For example, Karl Raimund divides the Earth Mother or Goddess of Sovereignty into three different realms with the Goddess of War occupying the lower realm, the Intoxicatress presiding over the middle, and the Queen reigning over the upper (Raimund). Despite these differences, there is general agreement that a Triple Goddess was worshiped with minor goddesses, such as the Goddess of Fertility, Bird and Snake Goddesses, and goddesses of water, land, and sky also playing a part in the religious experience (Gimbutas 223, Raimund).

In her study of these early representations, Gimbutas also discovered groups of figurines dating back to 6500-3500 BCE that include nine figures, one of which is larger and more prominent that the others. Using myth, Gimbutas has interpreted the meaning behind these pieces, claiming that the more prominent figure represents the Goddess or high priestess and the others represent a college of priestesses. These figurines are early representations of sisterhoods, which possessed great powers and exercised them through incantation, singing, and dancing. Pomponius Mela, writing in the 1^st c. A.D. gives further strength to this interpretation in his commentary on a community of nine virgins who lived on the island of Suin off the coast of Brittany and had the power to arouse waves, change animals, cure sickness, and predict the future (Gimbutas 343).

Most of these powers would have been used in rituals and ceremonies and because of the abundance of female iconography (X's, V's, breasts, bird's feet, etc.) found on the walls of caves, Gimbutas claims that most ceremonies and rituals were held within them (Gimbutas 221, 223). One such ceremony was Samhain, a day on which the dead were remembered. Another important day was Beltane, which is now associated with sexual rites, but was more likely a purification ritual. Lughnasad was also celebrated yearly as the marriage of the Earth Goddess and Lugh with contests of skill and strength. An initiation to kingship ritual was also common and involved the king sleeping with a white mare, which represented the Sovereignty Goddess (Raimund). Deer horns, dating back to 8000-7500 BCE, have been found in Star Carr, England and are believed to have been worn for ritualistic dances. The high priestess or queen may have chosen her consort during this particular ritual, but it is more likely that her brother served as her consort and took care of trade and public matters while she dealt with religion (Gimbutas 224).

Several more bits of information have been discovered in the commentaries of Classical writers such as Casear, Strabo, Diodorus, Siculus, Lucan, and Dio Cassius. Vernacular sources such as the "Mythological Cycle," Ulster Cycle, which mentions the death goddess, Morrigan, and the "Fionn Cycle," have also served as helpful guides. Scholars have uncovered information on druidism, divination, human sacrifice, head-hunting, herbal lore, and life after death from these works (Green 8-9, Raimund). They have now determined that this society most likely believed in an afterlife rather than reincarnation (Raimund). Another important discovery is the Goddess's role as a lawgiver. It is now believed that she had commandments, which included not lying and respecting others, and that she punished those who broke them, sometimes going so far as eating them, according to legend (Gimbutas 343). This punishing aspect of the Goddess may have foreshadowed the new religion that was to come, and by 3000 BCE, goddess worship ended as society change from a "learned theocracy to a militant patriarchy" (Gimbutas 401).

Neo-Paganism became a large movement in the 1980s as its members began recreating the "Old Religion" or nature religion that was present in early civilizations long before Christianity (Fry 68, 73). Members define their movement as "a modern Earth Religion which borrows and adapts from the best of pre-Christian Pagan religions, sometimes with additions from contemporary religious thinkers" ("About"). Most recognize it as a powerful feminist organization as well (Fry 69). Individual members, both female and male, refer to themselves as witches, which simply means they worship the goddess, and they meet in small groups called covens. All of these groups worship the Goddess, who they call by many names, such as the immanent life force, Mother Nature, Earth, the Cosmos, and the interconnectedness of all life, but their ceremonies differ ("About"). Examples of different groups are Gardinerian, Alexandrian, Dianic, and Native American (Fry 69).

In "The Goddess Ascending: Feminist Neo-Pagan Witchcraft in Marian Zimmer Bradley's Novels," Carrol Fry discusses both the Neo-Pagan movement and its influence on The Mists of Avalon: "Indeed, The Mists of Avalon would make a useful training manual for novice Pagans" (Fry 340). One reason for this strong presence within the work is Bradley's background and experience with the movement. She became interested in the Western Esoteric tradition in college and was involved in metaphysical training and magic in the 50's and early 60's (Paxson 111-112). Her attendance at workshops on Neo-Paganism and the Women's Spirituality movement led to the formation of the Aquarian Order of the Restoration and later, Darkmoon Circle, which participated in coming of age rituals and served as a model for the community of priestesses at Avalon (Paxson 114).

One of the rituals Bradley would have been familiar with is "drawing down the moon," the core of any community of Neo-Pagans and their religious experience. Neo-Pagans worship the Goddess and her consort, the Horned One, and through this ceremony they believe they can become the Goddess and God through a trance state (Fry 69, Fry 334). This ceremony occurs on Beltane, which is April 30 or May Eve ("About"). During the ceremony, the members work themselves into this trance state and then participate in a ritual involving sex, with an emphasis on the woman's freedom to choose her lovers (Fry 336).

This exact ceremony takes place in Mists, with Morgaine taking on the role of Goddess and Arthur taking on the role of the Horned One. Morgaine is induced into a trance state: "And for an instant, some small part of Morgaine, dizzy and drunk and only half in her body at all, remarked coldly that she certainly must be mad" (Bradley 177). Soon after, she joins Arthur in the sacred ceremony and know that others are participating as well: " . . . and at her command she knew that outside the cave, in the light of the fecundating fires, man and woman, drawn one to the other by the pulsating surges of life, came together" (Bradley 178).

Another obvious influence is the Neo-Pagan belief in a Triple Goddess. Gimbutas refers to this in ancient civilizations, and here the Goddess takes on the roles of Maiden, Mother, and Crone. Neo-Pagans believe that these different roles enable women to see the importance of each stage of life (Fry 73). Viviane refers to the three faces of the Goddess early in the work: " 'She is not yet a maiden, and I not yet a wise-woman . . . but we are the Three, Igraine. Together we make up the Goddess, and she is here present among us' " (Bradley 23). The three roles are also evident as Morgaine grows from a maiden to a mother and eventually, takes on the role of the Death-Crone.

In addition to these important influences, subtle hints of Neo-Paganism are also evident throughout the novel. Morgaine's skills, which include calling and raising fire, calling the mists, bringing rain, herb lore, the lore of healing, and lore songs, are all basic skills of witchcraft (Bradley 137, Paxson 121). Women have the dominant role in the Neo-Pagan movement, and we see this influence in Viviane and Merlin's relationship, where Viviane is undoubtedly the more dominant of the two.

Neo-Pagans do not hide their anger towards Christianity, believing it destroyed the Goddess religion, and we see this attitude numerous times throughout the work, especially from Morgaine: " 'You Christians are overfond of that word unseemly, especially when it relates to women . . . If music is evil, then it is evil for men as well; and if it is a good thing, should not women do all the good things they can do, to make up for their supposed sin at the beginning of the world?'" (Bradley 228, Fry 335).

Neo-Pagans also use symbols that denote Earth, Air, Fire and Water in their worship, and Viviane does the same: "Now there was present the four elements: fire, in her lamp; water, from which she had drunk; the earth where she stood; and as she invoked the powers of air, she saw as always during this invocation, a vagrant breeze ripple across the surface" (Bradley 115). Countless other examples further strengthen the connection between Mists and Neo-Paganism, and Bradley's knowledge and background in the movement are evident.

EARLY GODDESS RELIGIONS AND MODERN SKEPTICISM:

Though Neo-Pagans claim their movement is based on goddess worship predating Christianity, many argue that such a religion as it is described today never existed and if it did, it has been distorted into a practice that is incomparable and totally unrecognizable. One reason for this skepticism is the unreliability of the sources used to recreate this religion. Miranda J. Green discusses the weaknesses of archaeology, contemporary commentators from the Classical world, and vernacular sources. Archaeology should not be relied upon as a strong source because many pieces from the time period did not survive. In addition, using their knowledge of myths and legends, archaeologists may interpret pieces incorrectly (Green 12). Commentators from the Classical world are also unreliable because of the bias of the authors, distortion, misunderstanding, and omission. Vernacular sources are not helpful either because Christians compiled them and in addition to their bias, they would not have had adequate information or experience in the practice (Green 8-10). Neo-Pagans pride themselves on their creativity, and many believe this creativity has led to divergence from the original facts surrounding a possible Goddess civilization (Lafferty 133). Anne Lafferty quotes Starhawk, a popular figure in the movement, to illustrate how they encourage creativity within the religion: "Everything we say here is a suggestion only. We know that your experience, your beliefs, and your approach to spirituality may differ from ours . . . Know that we encourage you to make use of this material in the way that best fits your own needs" (Lafferty 133). Critics such as Roger Scruton claim, however, that fulfilling these individual needs often means reinterpreting and redefining the religion and taking it farther from its original source.

Scruton believes this source for Neo-Paganism is the 19^th-century writings of men such as Johann Jacob Bachofen who first mentioned the idea of a matriarchal society, an idea that was later discredited, and the finding of a secret coven from the 17^th century by Gerald Gardiner (Scruton, Fry 68). Even though discredited and far removed from the time period when the religion supposedly originated, these sources became the foundation of Neo-Paganism.

The Neo-Pagans are further accused of taking this foundation and trying to rewrite history, using present-day views of the advancement of women: " . . . how we study goddesses may be affected by how we view the advancement of women in our society" (Young 105). Taking these views, their personal needs, and their fallacious sources, the Neo-Pagans created a religion devoted to the Goddess, feminism, environmentalism, and liberalism (Scruton). Because of the unreliability of sources on ancient Goddess worship and the Neo-Pagans' creative approach to their religion, Bradley's depiction of Goddess worship can only be linked back with certainty to Neo-Paganism, a religion within itself and not connected to any possible ancient religion.

CHRISTIANITY AND BRADLEY:

The Neo-Pagans' anger toward Christianity is mentioned above, and this influence is apparent throughout Mists. Neo-Pagans essentially believe that the old practices they have embraced were forced to retreat when priests from Rome introduced Christianity to Britain ("About"). As was mentioned before, the nature-centered, spiritual society of the Goddess changed to a society where men held dominion over nature and viewed religion as something to be feared. In Mists, Bradley tries to revive this matrifocal world and show its struggle against patriarchy and its punishing God and judging priests. (Sheppeard 98).

Tension is also apparent in Mists because of the associations drawn between Goddess worship and feminism, and Christianity and misogyny. Many Neo-Pagans see Christianity and its overthrow of Goddess worship as one of the first signs of men's dominance over women. With the popularity of Christianity came views of women as the source of all sin. Gorlois' support of this belief is apparent: "A holy man told me once that women bear the blood of their mothers, and so it has been since the days of Eve, that what is within women, who are filled with sin, cannot be overcome by a woman-child" (Bradley 86).

Bradley criticizes this view and makes it clear that the prepatriarchal society is superior in instances such as the one where Igraine allows Morgaine to go to Avalon, believing it will be more beneficial than allowing her to be raised as a Christian: "she would fare better with the Goddess than in the hands of the black priests who would teach her to think that she was evil because she was a woman" (Bradley 359, Fry 74). The tension between paganism and Christianity becomes one between men and women as well, as women strive not necessarily for dominance, but equality.

Though this tension is obvious, and many assume Bradley was a devout Neo-Pagan and fiercely opposed to Christianity, Bradley's background and own words reveal that she surprisingly took neither side in real life. She actually seems to have tried to understand both worlds. While she served as a priest of the Pre-Gnostic Nicene Catholic Church, she was also a priestess of the Goddess (Paxson 114). The phrase "All Gods are one God," which is used numerous times by Merlin, Viviane, and Morgaine, is commonly associated with Dion Fortune, founder of the Order of the Golden Dawn. This organization, studied and admired by Bradley, was centered around the symbol of the Tree of Life, where paganism and Christianity were shown coexisting (Paxson 121).

While Bradley did say that she preferred the esoteric Christianity of Joseph of Arimathea rather than the restrictive Christianity of St. Paul and in Mists, Bishop Patricius, she never openly condemned the religion (Paxson 124). In fact, in an interview with Carrol Fry, she claimed to be a Christian and to have little experience with Neo-Paganism: "I don't know that much about it. I'm a practicing Christian. People are always surprised when they find that out, but it's true" (Fry 76). Bradley's references to Neo-Paganism and Goddess worship are apparent, and her dislike of restrictive Christianity that subverts women is also clear, but her words seem to indicate that instead of taking a stand for one or against the other, she wished to present an idealized world where both could exist together.

Works Cited

"About the Covenant of the Goddess." Covenant of the Goddess. 15 November 2000. <http://www.cog.org>

Green, Miranda Jane. Celtic Myths. London: British Museum Press, 1993.

Lafferty, Anne. "How We Braid Our Lives Together With Our Ancestors." Ethnographies 20.1 (1998): 129-149.

Paxson, Diana L. "Marion Zimmer Bradley and The Mists of Avalon." Arthuriana 9 (1999): 110-26.

Scruton, Roger. "Bibles and Broomsticks." National Review  September 1999. 15 November 2000.