Rob Allega
English 327
Winter 2010
The most famous quest in all of Arthurian Literature is
the grail quest, and the grail quest has been told and retold
throughout history by a number of different writers. Chrétien de Troyes is
generally regarded as the father of the grail legend, but his
telling of the grail legend has been increasingly Christianized
by subsequent authors. Still,
the question remains: is the grail motif original to Chrétien or
was he influenced by previous legends? And if he was
influenced by previous legends, what were these legends and
where did they originate? Early
grail scholarship argues that the origins of the grail legend
lie in Celtic myth. But,
subsequent scholars have challenged this set of assertions
resulting in an extended and lively scholarly debate. While proponents of
the grail quest's Celtic origins have faced criticism based on
their inability to point to a direct parent legend and also on
the grounds that the myths may originate from Sarmatia, the
evidence presented by grail scholars overwhelmingly indicates
that the grail legend has its origins in Celtic myth, allowing
the Celtic origins theory to gain more or less general
acceptance.
Early Scholarship about Grail's
Connection to Celtic Myth
The first prominent scholar to
seriously advocate for the link between Celtic myth and
Arthurian Romance was Alfred Nutt, who wrote at the end of the
nineteenth century. Nutt's
work sets the groundwork for the theory "that a grail myth
existed in early Celtic culture and that medieval romance
authors re-worked material trying to make sense of an ancient
myth which they no longer understood" (Wood 181). His work The Holy Grail with
Especial Reference to its Celtic Origin argues for the
Celtic origins of the grail legend by highlighting
"material in Irish, Welsh and Scots
Gaelic relating to Otherworld vessels which had magic
properties. These,
together with vengeance tales and stories of heroes seeking
supernatural objects and/or Otherworld women, were put forward
as the ultimate source for the grail story" (Wood 181).
For instance, Nutt draws a parallel between Perceval's
failure to inquire about the grail in Chrétien's Perceval and the geasa, a frequent
feature in Irish folklore.
The gesa "bids the visitor to the otherworld abstain from
a certain act, and that which, on the contrary, bids him perform
a certain act, failure of compliance with the injunction being
punished in either case" (Nutt 212). The Irish mythological
hero Cuchulainn serves as one illustrative example of this
condition. He is
"placed under a gess to
"never refuse food offered him by women and as he goes to his
last fight he accepts the poisoned meal of the witches though he
full well knows it will be fatal to him" (Nutt 214). Since Cuchulainn
realizes that if he refuses the witches' food he will die
because of his failure to abide by the gesa, he accepts the
witches' food knowing he will be poisoned. Nutt hypothesizes that
this feature is also present in Chrétien's Perceval and that
Perceval, a visitor at court, does not inquire about the grail
because he is "under gesa
to ask no questions" (212).
Here Nutt is hypothesizing about the Celtic element gesa's influence over
Chrétien's depiction of the grail, specifically in how he
depicts Perceval's behavior around it. The connections Nutt
identifies between Celtic myth and the grail romances influence
other scholars to identify additional connections.
One of the strongest points of the early grail scholars
is that many aspects of pagan folklore have infiltrated into
Middle English literature, thereby adding substance to the
argument that the grail derives from Celtic tradition. For example, Arthur
Brown draws a parallel between a feasting scene in Imram Brain, translated
"Voyage of Bran", and the legend of Saint Brendan in order to
show how church figures took certain pagan tales and introduced
Christian elements into them (67).
The idea is that since the "Christianization" of pagan
tales in medieval Ireland was a common practice, it seems
perfectly logical for the grail legend to be derived from a
Celtic myth. Also,
Loomis draws attention to the fact that Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight "has long been recognized as derived through French
from an Irish tale of a head-cutting test, which goes back to
the ninth century" (Irish
416). Since works
like Sir Gawain and the
Green Knight incorporate elements from the Irish tradition
into their work, it is plausible to believe that the grail
stories also draw upon Celtic myth. Additionally, Loomis
notes that "Arthur's sword, called in English Excalibur, in
French Calibourc, goes back to a Welsh Caledvwlch, which in turn
derives from Irish Caladbolg" (Grail 18). These
final two examples are specific parallels between Arthurian
legend and Irish tradition.
Since these aspects of Irish folklore were able to
influence Arthurian romance, it becomes more plausible to
believe that a Celtic version of the grail legend influenced
Arthurian tradition.
Further, Brown argues that the magic
vessel in the tale Imram
Maelduin is a possible folkloric ancestor to the grail. While Christian
elements might have been added to the work by scribes, Brown
points out that "the sleep-bringing music, the disappearance of
the island overnight, and in particular the food which affords
each man the taste that he desires, belong to fairy lore" (70). These elements of Imram Maelduin
establish its connection to Celtic pagan tradition. Next, Brown draws
attention to a cleric that is sustained for several years by a
magical cup and seven cakes (71).
He identifies the introduction of the cleric into the
manuscript as evidence of the "Christianization" of what he
argues is a magical pagan vessel (Brown 71). The function of the
magical cup in the Imram
Maeldain is very similar to its function in Arthurian
romance. For
instance, when the grail first appears traveling over the heads
of the knights of the Round Table in Le Morte Darthur "there
was all the halle fulfylled with good odoures, and every knyght
had such metis and drykes as he beste loved in thys worlde"
(Malory 503). In
both instances, the grail is magically providing food. Thus, it is quite
likely that the supernatural cup motif derives from Celtic
tradition, much like the sleep-bringing music.
Roger Sherman Loomis is another early scholar who argues
in support of the grail's Celtic origins. Loomis asserts this
position in his article "Irish Origin of the Grail Legend,"
which was published almost twenty-five years after Nutt's
writings and a little more than fifteen years after Brown's
article. He wishes
to strengthen the argument for the grail's Celtic origins
because he believes previous scholars "overlooked much of the
best evidence and offered much that aroused debate rather than
conviction" (Loomis Irish
418). One aspect of the
grail legend that Loomis examines in detail is the striking
similarities between the bleeding spear in Chrétien's Perceval and the Celtic
hero Lugh's lance. In
Chrétien's Perceval,
the bleeding lance is depicted as being upright and "'[f]rom the
point of the lance issued a stream of blood which ran down into
the vessel"'(qtd. in Loomis Irish 422). Similarly in Celtic
myth, Lugh's spear "is twice described as standing in a caldron
filled with blood" (Loomis Irish 422). The repetition of this
image of a spear standing alone in a cauldron of blood is strong
evidence supporting a Celtic influence on Arthurian romance
because of the prominence of a supernatural spear in stories
from both traditions. Another
similarity between the two spears highlighted by Loomis is that
in the Celtic work Fate
of the Children of Turen the spear of Pisear is retrieved
from a cauldron and given to Lugh (Irish 422). Also in Huth Merlin, Balin
comes across a spear which he uses to kill King Pellam (Loomis Irish 422). From these two
passages, Loomis draws the conclusion that
"since King Pellam's spear is unquestionably the bleeding
spear of the Grail castle, and since Pisear's spear was
certainly the lightning spear of Lugh, we may with reason
believe that the spear so frequently seen in the Grail castle
and interpreted by Christianizers as the Holy Lance which the
centurion thrust into the side of Christ upon the Rood, was
originally the spear of Lugh" (Irish 422).
Loomis believes the similar characteristics and stories
surrounding the two spears are due to the fact that the two
stories derived from a common source. Connections between
Celtic tradition and the spear deserve special significance
because the spear is closely linked to the grail in Chretien's Perceval.
Loomis makes other connections between Lugh and Arthurian
legend when he chronicles how the coming of Galahad in Le Morte Darthur is
remarkably similar to the coming of Lug in the Irish epic the Second Battle of Moytura. Loomis identifies "ten
common features" between Sir Galahad's arrival at Camelot and
Lug's arrival at the god Nuada's court (Grail 178). One of the most
interesting of these ten features is that in both tales there is
an "empty seat awaiting a worthy occupant" (Loomis Grail 178). Upon Galahad's arrival
at Camelot, King Arthur reveals the inscription on the Siege
Perilous that "Thy ys the syege of Sir Galahad, the hawte
prynce" (Malory 500). Similarly
when Lug arrives at Nuada's court, he sits "'in the seat of the
Sage, which was set apart for the wisest'" (qtd. in Loomis Grail 177). The second most
interesting of the ten common features is the hero's
"demonstration of his superior strength which involves a block
of stone" (Loomis Grail 178). Galahad displays his
strength by pulling his sword out of a stone (Malory 501). Lug displays his
superior strength by lifting an extremely large stone and
throwing it out of the fortress (Loomis Grail 177). A third common feature
is "the coming of a handsome youth with a red colur on him"
(Loomis Grail 178). In Malory, Galahad is
introduced as clad in red (Loomis Irish 420). Similarly, "Lugh was
said to have 'a red color on him from sunset to morning'"
(Loomis Irish 420). The similar physical
descriptions of these two mythic heroes points towards the fact
that the characters of Galahand and Lugh are related. The multitude of
similarities between the introductions of Galahad and Lug lead
Loomis to conclude that "this confrontation of the Irish and the
Arthurian narratives affords one of the strongest proofs of the
Celtic origin of the Grail legends" (Grail 178).
Loomis provides the most expansive
framework of any scholar in connecting elements of the Celtic
tradition with medieval Arthurian literature, and draws another
parallel between the Welsh romance Peredur and the Irish
legend the Sovereignty of Erin, because in Peredur the "damsel
who bears the platter in the Grail castle appears in hideous
form and is described in almost the same terms as the
Sovereignty of Erin" (Loomis Irish 421). Taking all of the
aforementioned evidence into consideration, Loomis dismisses
chance as the reason for these similarities by proclaiming that
"[c]oincidence becomes impossible as an explanation of these
parallels when we see that not only has the Grail Bearer her
counterpart in the damsel in Lugh's palace; but the bleeding
spear also has its Irish counterpart in Lugh's spear" (Loomis Irish 422). Since
connections between Arthurian Romance and Celtic tradition can
be identified for these elements which are intricately connected
to the grail, it logically follows that the grail is also
derived from Irish elements.
Defense of
Evidence
Skeptical scholars attempt to
discredit the Celtic origins theorists by pointing to a seeming
lack of solid evidence. The
arguments of all advocates of the grail's Celtic origins draw on
a number of different Celtic sources in order to identify
parallels with the grail romances.
This fact causes some scholars to feel uneasy about the
theories of Celtic origins theorists because they seem to pick
and choose evidence from the various stories present in Celtic
tradition to support their theories, without being able to
pinpoint a definitive account.
For instance, Alan Lupack asserts that "it is an
oversimplification to consider the tale of the Grail as merely a
development of earlier Celtic material" (213). He further identifies
the lack of a definitive account as a justification for his
reluctance to accept the grail's origins in Celtic folklore by
stating "[p]erhaps the origin of the Grail stories will never be
precisely defined" (Lupack 213).
This assertion expresses doubt about the grail's origins,
and evidences an academic argument about the grail's true
origins.
Proponents of the Celtic origins
theory counter this argument by asserting that historical
realities limit their ability to provide a definitive Celtic
account of the grail legend.
Loomis replies to critics by saying that due to the age
of the Celtic legends, it is probable that many, possibly more
definitive, Celtic accounts with reference to a sacred vessel
are lost (Irish 418). Additionally, the
tendency to dismiss the Celtic origin theory because of its
inability to identify a definitive account of the grail legend
is unfair, because with regards to the available sources, "it is
certain that in no one case do we possess a primary form" (Nutt
xii). Since the
original Celtic texts are lost, scholars should not expect
proponents of the Celtic origins theory to produce them. Loomis goes on to defend
the Celtic origin theory by proclaiming that "[n]o other
hypothesis can explain anything like so much" (Irish 418). In his later
scholarship, Loomis defends this seemingly haphazard method of
proving the grail's origins by arguing that grail scholars need
to understand "from the start that seldom is a complete episode
traceable to a single Irish or Welsh source, but that each is a
more or less skillful patching together of materials from the
large stock of Celtic myths and hero-tales" (Grail 23-4). Proponents of the
Celtic origins theory do not argue that the grail legend derived
directly from a single definitive Celtic legend, but rather they
see the grail legend as a combination of elements from Celtic
tradition being put together.
Acceptance by Scholars of
Grail's Celtic Origins
The overarching theory of Nutt, Brown, and Loomis that
the grail legend derives from Celtic tradition is generally
accepted by modern scholars, despite the less than definitive
nature of the evidence. For
instance, Norris Lacy and Geoffrey Ashe qualify their discussion
of the Celtic origins of Arthurian literature by pointing out
that a lot of the evidence regarding its Celtic origins "exists
in the form of highly enigmatic poems or in the tantalizingly
brief references offered by the triads" (67). However, they still
recognize the high probability of the grails Celtic origins and
comment that "even if we cannot accept without reservation the
notion of Celtic origins and transmission, it is reasonable to
acknowledge that Celtic lore...provide[s] striking analogues to
continental Grail themes and other motifs" (Lacy and Ashe 67). While argument
persists over the extent to which Celtic tradition influenced
grail lore, the evidence is such that "[t]he kernel of the Grail
Legend is therefore definitely Celtic: this is now widely
accepted" (Williams 103). The
fact that modern scholars accept the theory that the grail
legends derive from Celtic tradition is a testament to the
evidence presented by Loomis, Nutt, and others and also an
acknowledgment of the legitimacy of their defensive claims about
historical limitations.
Sarmatian Origins Challenge to
Celtic Origins
A more radical, yet still very interesting, challenge to
the Celtic origins theory is the notion that the King Arthur
legends actually originate from Sarmatia. The Sarmatians were an
ancient people who lived in what is currently Southern Russia
(Littleton and Thomas 514).
The closest connection between ancient Sarmatian legend
and Arthurian legend comes from comparing the death scenes of
Batradz and King Arthur. As
Batradz lies dying by the side of a lake, he commands his Nart
companions to throw his sword into the lake, but his Nart
companions refuse and hide the sword instead. The Narts then report
back to Batradz that they threw his sword into the water, but
Batradz detects their lie when they report that nothing
miraculous happened (Littleton and Thomas 515). Eventually, the Narts
do carry out Batradz's command and when they do "the sea turns
blood red and becomes extremely turbulent" (Littleton and Thomas
515). Admittedly,
this account of Batradz's death is remarkably similar to the
death of King Arthur.
Just like Batradz, when Arthur lies
dying, he commands Sir Bedwere to "throw my swerde in that
water, and com agayne and telle me what thou syeste there"
(Malory 687). Just
as Batradz's Nart companions disobey his command, Sir Bedwere
disobeys King Arthur's command, but King Arthur realizes Sir
Bedwere's disobedience and chastises him as "[a] traytour unto
me and untrew" (Malory 687).
Eventually, Sir Bedwere carries out King Arthur's wish
and when he throws Excaliber into the water "there cam an arm
and an honde above the watir, and toke hit and cleyght hit, and
shoke hit thryse and braundysshed, and than vanysshed with the
swerde into the watir" (Malory 687). In both episodes,
something miraculous occurs when the sword is finally thrown
into the water. C.
Scott Littleton and Ann C. Thomas point to these parallels in
order to establish a link between the Sarmatian tradition and
Arthurian legend. This
challenge to the origins of Arthurian legend relates to the
grail quest because the grail quest plays a prominent role in
Arthurian legend.
If Arthurian legend were to originate
from Sarmatia than there is a good change that the origins of
the grail legend originate from Sarmatia, and Littleton and
Thomas argue for a direct link between the grail and Sarmatian
legend. They assert
that "another important theme...that
runs throughout the Nart sagas concerns the struggle for
possession of a magical cup (or cauldron) called the Amonga (or
Naryamonga, 'The Cup of the Narts')" (Littleton and Thomas 516). This theme bears a
striking resemblance to the grail quest because the grail quest
is also a search for a magic vessel. Additionally, the
struggle for "The Cup of the Narts" is a spiritual struggle
because it can only be possessed by "those Narts who have
demonstrated exceptional courage or who are without faults of
any kind" (Littleton and Thomas 516). Similarly, the grail
quest is a spiritual quest. For example, Galahad's virginity is
important to his achieving the grail in Malory. If Littleton and
Thomas' theory is correct, then the grail's origins are in fact
Sarmatian rather than Celtic.
However, Richard Wadge, a defender of
the grail's Celtic origins, discredits Littleton and Thomas'
theory. Wadge
focuses his argument on pointing out the inconsistencies between
the legends of Batradz and King Arthur explaining that "[t]he
most significant differences between Batradz and Arthur are
Batradz' youth, his association with heat (when he is tempered)
and the fact that he is not the king of the Narts but the
greatest among them" (205).
Further, Wadge points to Loomis' argument that Arthur's
death scene has its roots "in Irish tradition in The Cattle Raid of Fraech"
(206). This
contradicts Littleton's argument of a Samatian source for
Arthur's death scene by offering a probable Irish source.
Additionally, Wadge argues that the
Celts could have influenced the Samartians, instead of the other
way around as Littleton contends.
This point of view is supported by the fact that Celtic
culture was significantly more advanced in economic terms than
Sarmatian culture (Wadge 206-7).
This attack and several like it weaken Littleton and
Thomas' historical argument.
Wadge also counters Littleton's
argument regarding the Holy Grail by highlighting "the extent to
which sacred vessels occur in Celtic traditions which cannot be
derived from Sarmatian tradition" (Wadge 207-8). For example, The Spoils of Annwn, The Thirteen Treasures of
Britain, and The
Prophetic Ecstacy of the Phantom are all manuscripts
derived from Welsh and Irish sources in which a supernatural
vessel appears (Wadge 208).
The grail theme is much more prevalent in Celtic
tradition than in Sarmatian tradition, indicating a higher
probability that the grail legend is originally Celtic. Wadge's article in
combination with the fact that Littleton and Thomas' theory is
more or less ignored indicates a general consensus among the
academic community in favor of the grail's origins being
originally Celtic.
Conclusion
The multitude of connections between the Arthurian
romances and the Celtic tradition strongly indicate that the
grail legend has its origins in Celtic myth. Alfred Nutt was the
first prominent scholar to champion this theory, and subsequent
scholarship has advanced it to the point where it is now widely
accepted. However,
the theory faces criticism from scholars who are uncomfortable
with the fact that it cannot point to a definitive Celtic parent
of the grail legend. Celtic
origin scholars defend themselves from this attack by asserting
historical limitations and also arguing that several Celtic
sources influenced the various strands of the grail legend. Also, a couple
scholars have proposed the alternative hypothesis that the
origins of the Arthurian legends are in fact Sarmatian as
opposed to Celtic, but the Celtic origins theorists succeed in
discrediting this theory as well.
Brown,
Arthur. "From Cauldron of
Plenty to Grail." Modern
Philology
14.7 (1916): 385-404
Nutt,
Alfred. Studies on the
Legend of the Holy Grail with
Especial Reference to the Hypothesis of its Celtic Origin. London:
Harrison and Sons, 1888.